You should avoid the following types of arguments in your argumentative paper. These elements weaken your argument and should be avoided.
1. Writing about feelings: Logical thinking never involves feelings.
Example: Animals have souls because whenever I look into their eyes I feel happy.
2. Using force: Do not threaten your reader with negative consequences if the claim is not believed.
Example: If you do not agree with me, you are a bad person.
3. Using fear: Do not include writing that invokes the dramatic fears or interests of your reader.
Example: Climate change research must continue, or life as we know it will collapse.
4. Using the wrong source: Do not use a quotation from a source that is not an expert in the field or, a source with whom other experts of that field disagree.
Example: Businesses should not have to limit the amount of pollutants they release into the air because my grandmother says there is no real evidence for pollutants causing the Greenhouse Effect.
5. Using wisdom: Avoid using traditional wisdom to support your argument.
Example: People have believed that fish is "brain food" for decades, so I don't believe the FDA when they claim that eating fish does not enhance the intellect.
6. DISTRACTING the reader with off-topic information: This happens when you do not have strong support for your argument. Your argument should stay on the topic.
Example: Animals have souls because I once had a dog named Murphy.
7. Shifting the Burden of Proof: The writer challenges those with an opposing view to defend their arguments; this puts the writer in a position in which s/he can deny the opposition's assertions.
Example: My friend believes animals should not be killed because they can feel pain, but for his argument to persuade me, he has to give me evidence of animals' ability to feel pain.
8. False Cause: Do not state an event was caused by something that you do not have insufficient evidence for making a causal link. If the identified cause is not the real cause, nothing assures that the point of discussion is true.
Example: Animals have souls because shortly after my cat died, my other cat died from heartbreak.
Example: All animals love people.
10. Popularity: The writer bases the argument on the belief that if an idea is held by a large group of people, it is true.
Example: Lots of people love animals, therefore they must have souls.
11. Particular Experiences: The writer makes a rule out of particular experiences to support the claim. As soon as an exception to the derived rule is found, the rule fails to support the argument.
Example: All Greek food causes illness; when I traveled through Greece, I got food poisoning.
12. Making assumptions about a group, based on characteristics of parts: The writer states a belief is true because a whole always possesses the characteristics of its parts, which is often untrue. Although this belief is sometimes acceptable, it is not universally applicable, so the appropriateness of using this idea must be determined on a case by case basis.
Example: Since many of the students at St. Cloud State University get A's, St. Cloud State must be a top-rated school.
13. Making assumptions about an individual based on characteristics of a group: The writer erroneously assumes that because a whole has a particular property, the parts forming the whole have the same property.
Example: IBM is a reputable organization, so all of its employees must be reputable.
14. Consecutive Relation: The writer assumes that because two events occur consecutively or concurrently, they are causally related.
Example: I believe in supernatural beings because every time I drive past the cemetery where my grandmother is buried, a light on my dashboard flashes. Her spirit causes this because it never happens otherwise.
15. Assuming that if one event occurs, other will follow: The writer bases the claim on the assumption that if a particular event occurs, so will other undesirable events. However, there are no reasons to believe that the subsequent events will occur. This fallacy is usually caused by fear.
Example: If we put limits on the right to bear arms, soon all of our Constitutionally-given rights will be taken away.
16. Stating that Two Wrongs Make a Right: The writer defends an action on the grounds that someone else has done something similar.
Example: Residents of St. Cloud should not be fined or punished violence against animals because those who live in Waite Park are not punished.
17. Circular Reasoning: The writer defends the claim by using the conclusion as one of the premises to support the conclusion.
Example: Animals have souls because my veterinarian says so. My veterinarian is a reliable source because animals love him.
18. Affirmation of the Consequent: The writer uses an If...then statement in the argument's reasoning. Then, the writer confirms the then part of the statement and derives the If part, thereby committing a serious logical flaw.
Example: If one is 16 years old or older, one can drive an automobile in Wisconsin. I saw your niece driving through New York yesterday. She must be at least 16.
19. Denial of the Antecedent: Again, the writer employs an If...then statement, but in this case, the writer denies the If part so that the negation of the then part can be concluded. However, just because the If part does not happen, it does not follow that the then part will not happen. The then part could result for some other reason.
Example: If the ozone layer is destroyed, many people will get cancer and suffer from other illnesses. The ozone layer is being protected, not destroyed. So, many people will be spared the pain of cancer and other illnesses.
Adapted from: http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/logic.html
1. Writing about feelings: Logical thinking never involves feelings.
Example: Animals have souls because whenever I look into their eyes I feel happy.
2. Using force: Do not threaten your reader with negative consequences if the claim is not believed.
Example: If you do not agree with me, you are a bad person.
3. Using fear: Do not include writing that invokes the dramatic fears or interests of your reader.
Example: Climate change research must continue, or life as we know it will collapse.
4. Using the wrong source: Do not use a quotation from a source that is not an expert in the field or, a source with whom other experts of that field disagree.
Example: Businesses should not have to limit the amount of pollutants they release into the air because my grandmother says there is no real evidence for pollutants causing the Greenhouse Effect.
5. Using wisdom: Avoid using traditional wisdom to support your argument.
Example: People have believed that fish is "brain food" for decades, so I don't believe the FDA when they claim that eating fish does not enhance the intellect.
6. DISTRACTING the reader with off-topic information: This happens when you do not have strong support for your argument. Your argument should stay on the topic.
Example: Animals have souls because I once had a dog named Murphy.
7. Shifting the Burden of Proof: The writer challenges those with an opposing view to defend their arguments; this puts the writer in a position in which s/he can deny the opposition's assertions.
Example: My friend believes animals should not be killed because they can feel pain, but for his argument to persuade me, he has to give me evidence of animals' ability to feel pain.
8. False Cause: Do not state an event was caused by something that you do not have insufficient evidence for making a causal link. If the identified cause is not the real cause, nothing assures that the point of discussion is true.
Example: Animals have souls because shortly after my cat died, my other cat died from heartbreak.
Example: All animals love people.
10. Popularity: The writer bases the argument on the belief that if an idea is held by a large group of people, it is true.
Example: Lots of people love animals, therefore they must have souls.
11. Particular Experiences: The writer makes a rule out of particular experiences to support the claim. As soon as an exception to the derived rule is found, the rule fails to support the argument.
Example: All Greek food causes illness; when I traveled through Greece, I got food poisoning.
12. Making assumptions about a group, based on characteristics of parts: The writer states a belief is true because a whole always possesses the characteristics of its parts, which is often untrue. Although this belief is sometimes acceptable, it is not universally applicable, so the appropriateness of using this idea must be determined on a case by case basis.
Example: Since many of the students at St. Cloud State University get A's, St. Cloud State must be a top-rated school.
13. Making assumptions about an individual based on characteristics of a group: The writer erroneously assumes that because a whole has a particular property, the parts forming the whole have the same property.
Example: IBM is a reputable organization, so all of its employees must be reputable.
14. Consecutive Relation: The writer assumes that because two events occur consecutively or concurrently, they are causally related.
Example: I believe in supernatural beings because every time I drive past the cemetery where my grandmother is buried, a light on my dashboard flashes. Her spirit causes this because it never happens otherwise.
15. Assuming that if one event occurs, other will follow: The writer bases the claim on the assumption that if a particular event occurs, so will other undesirable events. However, there are no reasons to believe that the subsequent events will occur. This fallacy is usually caused by fear.
Example: If we put limits on the right to bear arms, soon all of our Constitutionally-given rights will be taken away.
16. Stating that Two Wrongs Make a Right: The writer defends an action on the grounds that someone else has done something similar.
Example: Residents of St. Cloud should not be fined or punished violence against animals because those who live in Waite Park are not punished.
17. Circular Reasoning: The writer defends the claim by using the conclusion as one of the premises to support the conclusion.
Example: Animals have souls because my veterinarian says so. My veterinarian is a reliable source because animals love him.
18. Affirmation of the Consequent: The writer uses an If...then statement in the argument's reasoning. Then, the writer confirms the then part of the statement and derives the If part, thereby committing a serious logical flaw.
Example: If one is 16 years old or older, one can drive an automobile in Wisconsin. I saw your niece driving through New York yesterday. She must be at least 16.
19. Denial of the Antecedent: Again, the writer employs an If...then statement, but in this case, the writer denies the If part so that the negation of the then part can be concluded. However, just because the If part does not happen, it does not follow that the then part will not happen. The then part could result for some other reason.
Example: If the ozone layer is destroyed, many people will get cancer and suffer from other illnesses. The ozone layer is being protected, not destroyed. So, many people will be spared the pain of cancer and other illnesses.
Adapted from: http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/logic.html